Atrophic Rhinitis prevalence is often assessed by nasal lesions scoring after cutting snouts at the slaughterhouse. The saw blade can damage the snout structure. The objective of this study is to compare the rhinitis lesions scored performed on snout sections with a saw (203 snouts) and those made on computer tomography images (CT). The influence of the anatomical area section is also studied.
The saw section does not change the nasal septum and the turbinate structure. The atypical morphologies of turbinate structure observed on some sections of snouts are still present on the CT image. At one centimetre in front of the first upper premolars, the score is significantly higher (more turbinate atrophies); one centimetre back, the score is the same.

Poster. The effect of the dietary digestible phosphorus (Pdig) to net energy (NE) ratio was assessed on pigs over the 27-113 kg bodyweight range. Previously tested ratios between 25-65 kg bodyweight and 65-115 kg bodyweight (0.22 and 0.18 g of Pdig/MJ NE, respectively) were compared to higher recommended ratios (0.25 and 0.20 g/MJ NE, respectively) at 9.2 and 9.8 MJ NE/kg using a CT scanner measurements of the radius. The pigs (n = 160, five per pen) were housed in single-sex groups and fed ad libitum.
During the trial, no pig was removed due to leg weakness or slow growth, and only one pig died. As previously observed, higher dietary NE content improved significantly the average daily gain of the pigs, but also increased fat content of their carcass. Dietary Pdig content also had a slight influence on performances and carcass characteristics. The surface of the radius with higher X-ray absorption was significantly increased with high dietary NE and Pdig content, revealing a higher bone mineralization with this diet, while no difference was obtained among the others. In fact, a higher bone mineralization could be observed when the dietary content of calcium and Pdig is above the level that maximizes performance. However, as no differences in performances and carcass characteristics were obtained between diets, 0.22 and 0.18 g Pdig/MJ NE could be recommended between 25-65 and 65-115 kg bodyweight ranges, respectively. Also, a method to compare digestible P diet levels based on the utilization of CT scanner could be proposed.

Most literature data on growing boars were obtained in ad libitum (ad lib) feeding conditions, with diet supplied as pellets or mash (dry), and up to a slaughter body weight below 120 kg. As a general ban on castration is expected in the EU by the year 2018, more knowledge was required in different management conditions, representative of those observed in the field (France). Six batches of boars were used to investigate the effect of six bi‐modal factors: group‐housed (6 /pen) vs single housed pigs, pigs fed ad lib with either dry pellets or liquid feed, pigs fed ad lib or restrictively fed with dry pellets or with liquid feeding, standard or heavy slaughter body weight. Boars from five batches were obtained from crossbred Large White x Pietrain sires, the other batch was either obtained from Pietrain or crossbred Duroc x Pietrain sires. High performance (growth rate and feed efficiency) is obtained under ad lib feeding conditions, both with dry pellets and liquid feeding, up to a heavy slaughter weight, and with different types of crossbreeding. However, a restricted feed allowance may be pertinent in the case of high boar taint risk. It can happen when housing conditions lead to a high level of feed intake and reduced feed efficiency (under exposure to cold for instance).

This work aims to develop models to predict the fally acid composition, including n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) from a near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measurement directly on the slaughter line. The measurements were performed on the slaughter line on 282 backfat of pigs using a near infrared 5pectrometer (LabSpec 5000, ASD). The fally acid composition of backfat were oblained using gas chromatography. The regression method was partial least squares (PLS). The models developed for CI8:3n-3, n-3 PUFA and total PUFA gave the best results (R'= 0.87, 0.86 and 0.86, respectively) with an associated uncertainty of 1.2, 1.5 and 2.8 points and average values of2.4; 3.2; and 16.2, respectively. For ail other fally acids, R2 < 0.75. The results show that it is possible to use NIRS to determine on the slaughter line the percentage of certain FA such as n-3 PUFA and enable them to be sorted according to quality criteria of fat.

In a context of salt content reduction in cooked ham, the effect of salt content on cooking loss and protein physicochemical changes (oxidation and denaturation) was investigated . Experimentation s were performed on pork semimembranosus muscle salted at 0.9, 1.2 and 1.5 % and cooked at 50 or 70°C during 20, 60 and 120 min. Protein oxidation was evaluated by the measurement of free thiols and carbonyl groups. Thermal denaturation was assessed by the measurement of myofibrillar proteins surface hydrophobicity. A reduction of salt content significantly (p < 0.001) increased cooking loss and hydrophobicity but had limited effect on protein oxidation. Cooking loss was significantly correlated (p < 0.001) with carbonyls formation and protein thermal denaturation, indicating a potential invo1vement of protein physicochemical changes in water binding capacity.

Epidemiological studies show that the overconsumption of salt increases the risks of cardiovascular diseases. The experimental protocol consists in characterizing the effect of a decrease in salt content on the structure of Semimenbranosus pork muscle during the production of the cooked ham. The results indicate that brining and cooking generate important structural and ultrastructural modifications. The morphological changes were quantified by image analysis. Our results show significant differences in muscle structure changes with the reduction of salt content. The cell size differs between salt levels before and after cooking with differences in ultrastructural changes.

Reduction of salt content in processed food is an important issue for both human nutrition and industry. Ham is composed of different muscles and the impact of salt reduction on each of them is unknown. To analyze and understand the effect of salting on the evolution of ham, it is essential to know the characteristics of muscles before applying any technological treatment. Muscles semi-membranosus, biceps femoris, rectus femoris and gluteus medius were selected on their physiological differences. These muscles were finely characterized in their structure and biochemical composition. Each muscle was then cured and cooked with two brines, which brought respectively 1.3% and 1.8% of sodium chloride in the meat. Cooking yield was determined. Significant differences were observed between muscles for physical, biochemical or histological parameters of non-cured muscles and between muscles and salt contents for cooking yield. Thus, muscle characteristics have to be taken into account in any study on the optimization of salting meat.

It was the first step of a large project, aiming to develop a mass transfer mathematical model in cooked ham with reduced sodium content.

Cooking loss (CL) and water content (X) during wet cooking were measured on 5 mm thick discs, 3x3x3 cm and 5x5x5 cm cubes of five muscles of pork: semimembranosus (SM), biceps femoris (BF), rectus femoris (RF), semitendinosus (ST) and longissimus thoracis (LT). During heating, water content in meat decreased to reach an equilibrium state (XeqCL). Salt content, dimension and muscle type influenced XeqCL but effect of temperature remained preponderant. Equilibrium water content differed when sample was vacuum-packed or not, but it was difficult to determine whether it was due to the effect of the surrounding juice or to the difference in pressure.

The aim of this work was to study consumers' acceptance of pork with different levels of boar taint according to their androstenone (AND) sensitivity in France (FR, N = 144), Spain (ES, N = 101) and United Kingdom (UK, N = 147). Samples were classified as ‘females’, ‘detection minus’ males (low levels of AND and skatole — SKA) and ‘detection plus’ males (high levels of AND and SKA). Globally, 22.7% of consumers were high sensitive, 28.3% middle and 49.0% low sensitive or insensitive to AND. Sixty-five percent dislike AND odour. AND disliking was lower in UK than ES and FR. The percentage of consumers that may reject tainted meat was 14.3–41.0%; the risk was lower in UK than ES and FR. The description of AND odour varied according to the degree of sensitivity of the consumers. High AND levels reduced the acceptability of boar meat; medium AND levels could even improve its acceptability compared with low levels, resulting in meat which is as positive as that from females.

Poster. In all animal species, the amount of fat and its distribution within body compartments determine both the productive efficiency and quality of meat, including sensory acceptability and potential benefits for human nutrition. Among the characteristics of the pig muscle that predict these qualities, the level of intramuscular fat (IMF) is the most commonly used because of its high heritability and its strong genetic correlation with overall acceptability of the meat, in particular for pork. Thus, flavour and juiciness would be significantly enhanced when IMF levels increased above approximately 2.5%. The determination of intramuscular fat is based on meticulous and time‐consuming standard chemical extraction methods. In this work, we validated a reliable and accurate magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) method to determine IMF content and distribution in intact pig muscle samples using very limited sample preparation and image analysis by comparison with a standard chemical extraction method and two physical methods, the near infrared transmittance and a self‐calibrated nuclear magnetic resonance NMR relaxometry. IMF values obtained through MRI matched well with those obtained by the NMR technique with a standard error of calibration of 0.18% and by the Soxhlet extraction technique and the near infrared technique, with an identical standard error of calibration of 0.25%. This high throughput MRI method is able to scan 24 samples simultaneously and determine the IMF content of more than 500 samples per day.

For centuries, entire male pigs have been castrated to reduce the risk of boar taint. However, physical castration of pig is increasingly being questioned with regard to animal welfare considerations. Immunization against gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) provides an alternative to physical castration. Using the currently available commercial product (Improvac®; Pfizer Animal Health), a two-dose regimen of a GnRH vaccine is administered. After the second vaccination, a substantial increase in feed consumption has been reported, which may be associated with increased body fatness and decreased feed efficiency when compared with unvaccinated entire male pigs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of a feed restriction on these traits and on the behaviour of 120 group-housed entire males (five pigs/pen) vaccinated against GnRH. The first vaccination was performed at 62 days of age and the second (V2) at 130 days of age. Pigs were slaughtered in two batches 4 to 5 weeks after V2. They were either offered feed ad libitum over the 22 to 114 kg BW range (AL treatment) or ad libitum up to a maximum of 2.50 (R2.50 treatment) or 2.75 kg/day per pig (R2.75 treatment). Behavioural observations and skin lesion scoring were conducted 1 week before V2, and 1 and 3 weeks after V2. At slaughter, the volumetric lean meat content was measured using an X-ray computed tomography scanner. Between V2 and slaughter, the average feed intakes for the R2.75 and R2.50 treatments were 15% and 22% lower than the average AL feed intake (3.20 kg/day), respectively. Feed restriction was associated with a reduced average daily gain after V2 (846, 932 and 1061 g/day in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P < 0.01) but had no effect on the feed conversion ratio (3.00 kg feed/kg BW gain on average, P = 0.62). No difference was observed in the lean meat content (71.8%, 70.7% and 70.4% in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P = 0.14), despite a reduced backfat thickness measured in restrictively fed pigs (12.0, 13.0 and 13.6 mm in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P < 0.01). Higher skin lesion scores were observed 3 weeks after V2 in R2.50 and R2.75 pigs than in the AL ones (scores 33.4, 27.7 and 25.5, respectively, P = 0.04). These results, combined with an unimproved feed efficiency and no marked change in carcass characteristics, suggest that immunologically castrated pigs should not be restrictively fed during the late finishing period.

From the nutrition point of view, lipids are primarily considered as energy suppliers, their dietary intake having to be limited. In fact, lipids are sources of various fatty acids, and dietary recommendations include the daily intakes in different fatty acids (fatty acid profile). Beyond these quantitative aspects, fatty acids are part of larger molecules, mainly triacylglycerols (TAG), that are organized in supramolecular structures as for example fat crystals and lipid droplets. Recent advances in nutrition research have demonstrated that these structures, and lipid organization in food matrices, influence digestibility and metabolism of fatty acids. Therefore, the members of the technological network Listral propose a synthesis of the knowledge about the influence of molecular and supramolecular structures of lipids on digestion and metabolic fate of dietary fatty acids originating from for the main food industry sectors.
Fatty acids are mainly provided in the diet in the form of TAG, or phospholipids (PL) where they are esterified in external (sn-1, sn-3) or internal (sn-2) position of the glycerol backbone. They can also be found as ethyl esters (EE) in specific formulations. These molecular characteristics of the lipid molecules affect their hydrolysis and their absorption rate but also their metabolism in indifferent organs, as assessed in studies often using inter esterified fat sources. The results depend on the types of fatty acids (saturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids) but also on the model used for the studies: in vitro or in vivo studies ; animal model, human newborn or adult, either healthy or exhibiting some diseases. Among others, it was found that the crystal form and fat melting point as affected by the fatty acid profiles and the lipid molecular structures directly impact fatty acid absorption kinetics through modifications of lipolytic enzyme activities. However, in these studies, the relative effect of the thermal properties of lipids and the proportion of saturated fatty acids chains in sn-2 position were hardly distinguished. Supramolecular structures, namely type and size of the fat droplets and their interfacial composition, of lipids, either in their native forms or obtained after food processes, also affect the digestibility and absorption of lipids. This aspect is reviewed with specific focus on dairy, marine, meat, oil plant and egg products. The impact of other nutritional components present in these food matrices on the absorption of lipids is also discussed.

The aim of this study is to master all the steps that make it possible to measure body composition, and muscle content in particular, in a live animal. The challenge is to control the anaesthesia and restraint of the animal, but also image capture and analysis.
The study made it possible to develop a specially adapted protocol, with intramuscular injection of the anaesthetic, restraint with a vacuum mattress, and image acquisition and processing as close as possible to what is already routinely carried out on carcasses and cuts. It is therefore now possible to measure the muscle content of a live pig using the IFIP mobile scanner.

The opportunity to use redox potential and visible spectroscopy for cooking yield prediction was investigated in processed meat. Whereas the relationship between ultimate pH (pHu) and cooking yield is well documented, the redox potential may help to understand the meat quality response in processed meat. Visible spectroscopy was tested as a more reliable alternative to pHu. Two experiments were run on cooked cured hams (SM) and loins (LD). To increase the meat quality variability, processing was performed with deboned and bone-in hams, and with loins stored under modified atmosphere or vacuum. Redox potential determination was carried out according to Rödel study [1] and visible spectra were collected with a spectrocolorimeter. The meat was processed following industrial standards and materials. Individual traceability was maintained from brine injection to slicing. For the 2 experiments, a strong relationship was confirmed between pHu and cooking yield (r=0.79, r=0.70) while the correlations with redox potential was not significant (r=-0.21, r=-0.24, SM and LD respectively). PLS cross-validation treatment of visible spectra showed high prediction level for the cooking yield of hams (r=0.70 and rmsec=2.1) and loins (r=0.67 and rmsec=2.0), not far from the pHu prediction level (rmse=1.8 and rmse=1.9, for SM and LD respectively). Redox potential measurements did not explain cooking yields variations for cured hams and loins, but a strong relationship was confirmed with pHu. PLS results suggest that visible spectroscopy might be considered as an alternative to pHu for cooking yield prediction.

Since 2009 the EU regulation concerning pig classification has authorised dissection as well as Computed Tomography (CT). The aim of this study was to compare the errors in both references when calibrating the French classification methods. A new CT procedure, which is both accurate and simple to use, was tested.
A representative sample of sixty-three pig carcases were measured using two French classification methods, CGM and ZP. Left sides were jointed into the four primal cuts and scanned using a spiral CT, before dissection. The four cuts were then fully dissected.
The Lean Meat Percentage (LMP) was calculated according to the EU definition. LMPdis was calculated from the dissected weight of the lean meat. LMPct was calculated from the muscle volume multiplied by a constant density. Muscle volume was first measured by automatic thresholding, in the Hounsfield range 0-120.
Bias between LMPdis and LMPct was not significant.
The RSD value for the estimation of LMPct was slightly lower than the RSD for LMPdis. The same was observed from ZP depths. Nevertheless, these differences between RSD values were likely not significant.
The current French classification methods CGM and ZP have about the same error whatever the LMP reference is, either from this CT procedure or from partial dissection. Therefore, this CT procedure will be adopted in France when checking periodically the current equations and for calibrating the future classification methods, which will be based on ZP depths.

This study highlighted various potential solutions for replacing the most common allergenic ingredients in charcuterie products depending on the functional role of the ingredient used. Glucose–dextrose corn syrup proved an equally good reducing agent to wheat dextrose in cooked ham. It also proved an equally good acidulant in dry sausage, while lactose demonstrated an equally efficient water binding capacity in cooked ham. The strong emulsifying power of caseinate in soft-textured sausage meat could only be equalled by pea protein, whereas potato protein, pork protein and blood plasma proved at least as effective as wheat gluten, with blood plasma offering added beneficial firmness effects.

The aim of this study was to assess the consumer acceptability of hams dry‐cured for more than seven months, processed from barrows, gilts or two groups of entire males exhibiting skatole levels lower than 0.11 μg/g of pure fat and androstenone levels ranging from 0.5 to 0.7 μg/g (group 1A) or from 1.5 to 2.3 μg/g (group 1B). The subset of 40 hams included in this study was selected from a larger population, and chosen for their higher carcass weight and backfat thickness.
The yields of dry‐cured hams from entire males were 3.3% and 2.2% lower compared to barrows and gilts, respectively.
Consumer acceptability of dry‐cured hams did not differ significantly between barrows, gilts and the two groups of entire males.
However, consumer acceptability of dry‐cured hams processed from entire males with higher androstenone and/or skatole levels remains to be investigated.
The levels of boar taint compounds seemed to be slightly reduced after processing.
Regarding fatty acid composition of the dry‐cured hams, there were few differences between groups. The levels of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) tended to be higher in the dry‐cured ham fat of entire males as compared to gilts and barrows.

The aims of this study were to:
- test consumer perception of the smell and taste of, and their intention to re-use, 4 batches of cooked loin pork with the fat removed, produced using meat from uncastrated male pigs with increasing androstenone levels;
- define a threshold cap for the androstenone criterion beyond which it becomes risky to transform the loin pork into cooked roasted meat sold in the self-service department (based on differences in consumer perception of the product).
Consumers do not appear to be put off by the smell, and appear not to notice any odour-active volatile compounds likely to still be present in the fat provided that the product is eaten cold. The product's low fat content provides another explanatory factor for these results. An androstenone content in excess of 0.5 &•6;g/g of fat might even improve the taste of the roast meat when eaten cold. A possible association with aromatic ingredients that mask the smell and orient the palate may make it possible to use loin pork from uncastrated male pigs for cooked roast meats sold in the self-service department and intended to be eaten cold. As a precautionary measure, it would be useful to indicate to buyers that the product is best eaten cold and not reheated.
Likewise, there must be perfect control over the amount of fat removed from the pork loins.

This study quantified the impact of technological parameters on colour development in cold and cured meats treated at low temperature (for heat-curing bacon) and high temperature (for cooking hams). In both cases, low-temperature heating (up to 55°C) was shown to play a primordial role. For heat-cured products, it is critical to control the salting and pre-salting phase, which should be led over at least 24 hrs, and preferably 48 hrs. Full process control over heat-curing temperature, especially the time-temperature scale (cooking threshold value) is essential in order to guarantee correct colouring of heat-cured products.
For cooked hams, the most critical parameter is the salting technology that ensures muscle myoglobin is physically exposed to nitrite. These findings highlight the pivotal role of controlling temperature ramp-up during the first few hours of heat treatment.
Slowly ramping up through the temperatures activating the chemical reactions (a ramp-up rate of just 0.2°C/min) yields a better colouration process. Cooked hams need to be able to sit in storage for a sufficiently long time before the cooking packaging is opened for slicing and repacking.

This study allowed to make an estimation of the consequences for the pig sector during the processing of dry hams of more than seven months stemming from entire males characterized on their levels of androstenone and skatole with regard to castrated males and females. The dry yield of entire males is lower of 3.3 points with regard to the yield of castrated males and lower of 2.2 points with regard to the females. The results of the tastings organized in a consumer laboratory of sensory analysis do not allow to observe significant differences in the category of risk of tested boar taint (less than 2 μg of androstenone and unless 0.20 μg/g of pure fat for skatole). Regarding the bibliography and the tendency of the results of this study, it’s prudent for the high quality dry hams to control the level of boar taint on the fat of the fresh ham before processing. It seems that we can observe a light reduction of the boar taint compounds during the dry ham process of 7 months. About faty acid composition we not see a lot of differences on the final product between genders. We can observe a tendency to have more faty acid poly-insaturated (AGPI) in entire male dry ham fat by comparison to females and castrated pigs.

The dual aim of this study was i) to test consumer perception of the smell and taste of 3 batches of traditional sausages produced from uncastrated boars with increasing androstenone levels versus a batch made from sow pork, and ii) to define an androstenone threshold cap beyond which it becomes risky to transform raw pork from uncastrated males into plain salted traditional sausage. The consumer panel preferred the sausage made from the female batch. Differences in taste and appreciation became visible from as early as 0.5 μg androstenone/g fat. As the odour-active compounds are stored in the fat, the content of these compounds together with the product fat content (30%)are two factors that need to be integrated when assessing the risk of diminishing consumer appreciation. Sausage-making with meat from uncastrated males pigs is a viable option for sausagemeat mixtures that include other ingredients, smell-enhancers or smoked products liable to mask the smell of uncastrated males that are given off during cooking or found during tasting. Should future market trends see a progressive expansion in the production of uncastrated male boars, the traditional cold pork sausage sector should look to only source meat and fat from sows or castrated boars.

The aim of this work was to evaluate consumers’ sensitivity to androstenone in three countries in Europe: France, Spain and United Kingdom

Two chilling rates from distinctive slaughterhouses were tested on pork carcasses selected with early ultimate pH determination (TritonX100 treated muscle samples). Meat quality parameters (early pH and ultimate pH) and carcass characteristics (sire genetic, carcass weight) were similar for the two chilling treatments, that made the comparative study possible. When chilling rate is faster, drip Loss is 21% lower and shear force after 2 days of maturation is 21% higher. The 4°c difference in the inner part of Semimembranosus muscle tested at 2 hours post mortem, induced in the present study a tenderization reduction in the first days post mortem without producing cold-shortening conditions. Another significant effect of chilling rate was its interaction with destructured hams defect occurrence: slow chilling increased by more than 3 times the frequency of the defect on hams with similar meat quality parameters. The Chilling rate after slaughter could be a process factor that could be useful for controlling the “PSE-like zones” defect frequency in pork industry.

Tomography techniques are well suited to determine carcass composition. Nevertheless, sometimes some practical constraints appear like: too time consuming, too costly, only joints are available. In these cases scanning some representative slices is a suited alternative.
This study aimed at firstly detecting some invariants to register images and secondly at selecting batches of contiguous slices for assessing the lean meat percentage of slaughterpigs.